New Forest eye | Causes
New Forest eye is the most common eye condition seen in cattle in the UK. The disease has a world-wide distribution and is usually seen in epidemics when a chronically or subclinically infected animal enters a herd. The clinical symptoms vary depending on the animal's susceptibility and the level of other contributing factors, but the main symptoms are runny eyes, red and inflamed conjunctiva and corneal ulcers in the later stages of infection.
How to treat New Forest eye in Cows
The causative agent is a bacterium Moraxella bovis. As the condition is seen commonly during the summer months, it is suspected that ultraviolet light, dust and flies act as predisposing factors. The condition can be seen in housed animals, and it is suggested that these predisposing factors are not needed for an epidemic to occur
Young animals are more susceptible than older animals and exhibit severer clinical symptoms. Most clinical cases are seen in animals under two years of age
Keratoconjunctivitis can also be caused by Listeria monocytogenes of silage origin, resulting in silage eye.
New Forest eye (NFE) is unfortunately a common disease of bovine eyes and can occur throughout the year, not just during the typical “fly season”. The disease NFE, also known as infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK), is caused primarily by a Gram-negative aerobic bacteria, Moraxella bovis. The disease is a painful condition of the eye and is a significant welfare concern for affected animals. Despite this, the no doubt large economic impact of the treatment and the reduced performance (Funk et al., 2014) means a greater understanding of the disease, including prevention, would be welcomed by both farmers and vets.
Severe outbreaks of NFE in groups may be linked to underlying immune suppression, caused for example by a calf persistently infected (PI) with bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) virus.
NFE presents in the early stages with tearing, blepharospasm and conjunctivitis, followed by stromal corneal ulcers and can end with a ruptured globe in the most severe cases (Figure 1). Surprisingly, even severely affected animals can recover with minimal corneal scarring, but blindness during the disease process creates a risk factor for further ocular damage from trauma.
New forest eye figure 1
Early identification is key and if lesions with ulcers or abscesses are seen, it could be useful to age the disease to help farmers understand how long the disease has been present. The corneal oedema severity and vascularisation of the lesion will indicate chronicity.
Treatment options
Topical treatment
In the UK, the most common licensed topical treatment for NFE is a penicillin-based ointment and is used widely for early stages of the disease due to its ease of application and zero day withholds. Traditionally, many farmers have used antibiotic eye powders or intramammary tubes for the treatment of NFE. The latter is not appropriate and should be discouraged. Careful application of the ointment is essential and if only a single eye is visibly affected, it may be beneficial to treat the unaffected eye as well, ensuring to treat the healthy eye first to avoid cross contamination.Subconjunctival treatment
Eye injections or subconjunctival treatments are often a hot topic of debate. The first step is clarifying the location of the injection site and ensuring that the animal is receiving the correct treatment as opposed to an intramuscular injection in a highly sensitive area of the body (Figure 2).
Injection sites in eye
Anecdotally, it is thought that subconjunctival injections on the scleral conjunctiva (bulbar or “white”) of the eye are more effective than at the palpebral location. Safe restraint of the animal is essential (Figure 3). Topical local anaesthetic should be applied to remove pain associated with the injection of an antibiotic bleb; 0.5% tetracaine drops although not licensed specifically for cattle have no maximum residue limits (MRL) required and so can safely be used under the prescribing cascade. The administration of antibiotics via subconjunctival route is off-licence, so again the treatment falls onto the prescribing cascade, resulting in a minimum of seven-day milk and 28-day meat withhold. Its use in lactating dairy cows is therefore not the best approach.
FIGURE (3) Ensuring the animal is safely restrained for bulbar subconjunc-tival injections is essential. It is important to ensure rotation/restraint of the head towards the side of the affected eye. Lifting of the head up causing rotation of the poll of the head results in the downwards rotation of the globe, exposing the sclera
Steroid use in small animals is advised against in cases with corneal damage due to the delay in healing of the cornea (Belknap, 2015). However, in farm practice it is fairly commonplace to combine oxytetracycline with a short-acting dexamethasone for subconjunctival injections to provide immediate pain relief for the animal.
As with all lesions of the eye, they need treating promptly. Bulbar subconjunctival injections (Figure 4) have a role in treating NFE cases, but arguably should not be the first line of treatment. Rapid treatment with topical and/or systemic treatment is quick and stress free for the animal and prevents issues that can arise with some farms “saving up enough cows” to justify getting a vet out, the delay causing prolonged welfare issues and a likely poorer treatment outcome. The authors also feel it is unacceptable for anyone other than a vet to perform a subconjunctival injection due to the nature of the location and ability to provide topical local anesthetic prior to injection. Inappropriate treatment used – be it location or medicine type, volume or combination – is likely to have adverse effects on healing and welfare.
FIGURE (4) When carrying out eye injections, a new 25G 5/8 needle should be used for each treatment and a separate needle should be used to fill the syringe. If the animal objects despite topical local anaesthetic, it is likely that the needle is penetrating the sclera below the conjunctiva (ie too deep). Blue arrow indicates the limbus (boundary between sclera and cornea), red arrow represents site for bulbar subconjunctival injection and green arrow indicates blood vessels on sclera to avoid when injecting
Systemic treatment
Systemic treatment with an injectable antibiotic, such as oxytetracyclines or florfenicol, is effective at treating NFE (McConnel et al., 2007) is an easy and effective treatment but farmers may be put off by the cost when groups require treating (although speed and ease of administration probably negates this). Use of macrolides has been proven to be effective in treating NFE (Lane et al., 2006); however, the cost and responsible use of antibiotics makes this antibiotic class less appropriate.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
The authors would advocate the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in combination with antibiotic therapy for cases as it is deemed a painful condition (Hudson et al., 2008). However, there is limited evidence for the benefit of NSAID use in ophthalmic conditions in cattle.
Other therapies
For severe cases, surgical treatments in addition to one of the above methods may be necessary. Tarsorraphy, third eyelid flaps and in some cases enucleation may be necessary. The bovine eye appears to have remarkable powers of healing and it is not uncommon to have severely ulcerated eyes resolve with minimum scarring; enucleation should not be embarked on too quickly.
Metaphylaxis treatment for the whole group may be indicated on welfare grounds for groups with a significant proportion affected; the exact percentage to initiate metaphylaxis needs to be determined by the veterinary surgeon.Management of disease
Animals severely affected by NFE bilaterally are often blind and as a result are easily panicked and wild in nature. It is important to ensure animals with reduced vision have easy access to food, remain in familiar surroundings, are kept with other animals and ideally where possible kept out of direct sunlight.Prevention
Prevention is key for the control and reduction of NFE, and it is important to note that younger animals are more prone to disease (Allan and Van Winden, 2020). Fly control, decreasing stocking density, improved ventilation and adequate feed and water space will help to minimise disease on-farm. For outdoor grazing animals, avoiding high-risk pastures where woodland is adjacent is useful. With regards to fly control, there are many options available including topical application of pyrethroids, fly tags, environmental control (surface spraying, parasitic larvae and reduction of fly breeding grounds) and above all ensuring animals are well grown, on a good plan of nutrition and have no underlying disease (eg BVD).References
Allan, J. and Van Winden, S. 2020 Randomised control trial comparing cypermethrin-based preparations in the prevention of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis in cattle. Animals, 10, 184
Belknap, E. B. 2015 Corneal emergencies. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 30, 74-80
Funk, L. D., Reecy, J. M., Wang, C., Tait, R. G. and O’Connor, A. M. 2014 Associations between infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis at weaning and ultrasongraphically measured body composition traits in yearling cattle. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244, 100-106
Hudson, C., Whay, H. and Huxley, J. 2008 Recognition and management of pain in cattle. In Practice, 30, 126-134
Lane, V. M., George, L. W. and Cleaver, D. M. 2006 Efficacy of tulathromycin for treatment of cattle with acute ocular Moraxella bovis infections. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 229, 557-561
Mcconnel, C. S., Shum, L. and House, J. K. 2007 Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis antimicrobial therapy. Australian Veterinary Journal, 85, 65-69
New Forest eye is the most common eye condition seen in cattle in the UK. The disease has a world-wide distribution and is usually seen in epidemics when a chronically or subclinically infected animal enters a herd. The clinical symptoms vary depending on the animal's susceptibility and the level of other contributing factors, but the main symptoms are runny eyes, red and inflamed conjunctiva and corneal ulcers in the later stages of infection.
|
| How to treat New Forest eye in Cows |
The causative agent is a bacterium Moraxella bovis. As the condition is seen commonly during the summer months, it is suspected that ultraviolet light, dust and flies act as predisposing factors. The condition can be seen in housed animals, and it is suggested that these predisposing factors are not needed for an epidemic to occur
Young animals are more susceptible than older animals and exhibit severer clinical symptoms. Most clinical cases are seen in animals under two years of age
Keratoconjunctivitis can also be caused by Listeria monocytogenes of silage origin, resulting in silage eye.
New Forest eye (NFE) is unfortunately a common disease of bovine eyes and can occur throughout the year, not just during the typical “fly season”. The disease NFE, also known as infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK), is caused primarily by a Gram-negative aerobic bacteria, Moraxella bovis. The disease is a painful condition of the eye and is a significant welfare concern for affected animals. Despite this, the no doubt large economic impact of the treatment and the reduced performance (Funk et al., 2014) means a greater understanding of the disease, including prevention, would be welcomed by both farmers and vets.
Severe outbreaks of NFE in groups may be linked to underlying immune suppression, caused for example by a calf persistently infected (PI) with bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) virus.
NFE presents in the early stages with tearing, blepharospasm and conjunctivitis, followed by stromal corneal ulcers and can end with a ruptured globe in the most severe cases (Figure 1). Surprisingly, even severely affected animals can recover with minimal corneal scarring, but blindness during the disease process creates a risk factor for further ocular damage from trauma.
|
| New forest eye figure 1 |
Early identification is key and if lesions with ulcers or abscesses are seen, it could be useful to age the disease to help farmers understand how long the disease has been present. The corneal oedema severity and vascularisation of the lesion will indicate chronicity.
Treatment options
Topical treatment
In the UK, the most common licensed topical treatment for NFE is a penicillin-based ointment and is used widely for early stages of the disease due to its ease of application and zero day withholds. Traditionally, many farmers have used antibiotic eye powders or intramammary tubes for the treatment of NFE. The latter is not appropriate and should be discouraged. Careful application of the ointment is essential and if only a single eye is visibly affected, it may be beneficial to treat the unaffected eye as well, ensuring to treat the healthy eye first to avoid cross contamination.
Subconjunctival treatment
Eye injections or subconjunctival treatments are often a hot topic of debate. The first step is clarifying the location of the injection site and ensuring that the animal is receiving the correct treatment as opposed to an intramuscular injection in a highly sensitive area of the body (Figure 2).
|
| Injection sites in eye |
Anecdotally, it is thought that subconjunctival injections on the scleral conjunctiva (bulbar or “white”) of the eye are more effective than at the palpebral location. Safe restraint of the animal is essential (Figure 3). Topical local anaesthetic should be applied to remove pain associated with the injection of an antibiotic bleb; 0.5% tetracaine drops although not licensed specifically for cattle have no maximum residue limits (MRL) required and so can safely be used under the prescribing cascade. The administration of antibiotics via subconjunctival route is off-licence, so again the treatment falls onto the prescribing cascade, resulting in a minimum of seven-day milk and 28-day meat withhold. Its use in lactating dairy cows is therefore not the best approach.
|
| FIGURE (3) Ensuring the animal is safely restrained for bulbar subconjunc-tival injections is essential. It is important to ensure rotation/restraint of the head towards the side of the affected eye. Lifting of the head up causing rotation of the poll of the head results in the downwards rotation of the globe, exposing the sclera |
Steroid use in small animals is advised against in cases with corneal damage due to the delay in healing of the cornea (Belknap, 2015). However, in farm practice it is fairly commonplace to combine oxytetracycline with a short-acting dexamethasone for subconjunctival injections to
provide immediate pain relief for the animal.
As with all lesions of the eye, they need treating promptly. Bulbar subconjunctival injections
(Figure 4) have a role in treating NFE cases, but arguably should not be the first line of treatment. Rapid treatment with topical and/or systemic treatment is quick and stress free for the animal and prevents issues that can arise with some farms “saving up enough cows” to justify getting a vet out, the delay causing prolonged welfare issues and a likely poorer treatment outcome. The authors also feel it is unacceptable for anyone other than a vet to perform a subconjunctival injection due to the nature of the location and ability to provide topical local anesthetic prior to injection. Inappropriate treatment used – be it location or medicine type, volume or combination – is likely to have adverse effects on healing and welfare.
|
| FIGURE (4) When carrying out eye injections, a new 25G 5/8 needle should be used for each treatment and a separate needle should be used to fill the syringe. If the animal objects despite topical local anaesthetic, it is likely that the needle is penetrating the sclera below the conjunctiva (ie too deep). Blue arrow indicates the limbus (boundary between sclera and cornea), red arrow represents site for bulbar subconjunctival injection and green arrow indicates blood vessels on sclera to avoid when injecting |
Systemic treatment
Systemic treatment with an injectable antibiotic, such as oxytetracyclines or florfenicol, is effective at treating NFE (McConnel et al., 2007) is an easy and effective treatment but farmers may be put off by the cost when groups require treating (although speed and ease of administration probably negates this). Use of macrolides has been proven to be effective in treating NFE (Lane et al., 2006); however, the cost and responsible use of antibiotics makes this antibiotic class less appropriate.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
The authors would advocate the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in combination with antibiotic therapy for cases as it is deemed a painful condition (Hudson et al., 2008). However, there is limited evidence for the benefit of NSAID use in ophthalmic conditions in cattle.
Other therapies
For severe cases, surgical treatments in addition to one of the above methods may be necessary. Tarsorraphy, third eyelid flaps and in some cases enucleation may be necessary. The bovine eye appears to have remarkable powers of healing and it is not uncommon to have severely ulcerated eyes resolve with minimum scarring; enucleation should not be embarked on too quickly.
Metaphylaxis treatment for the whole group may be indicated on welfare grounds for groups with a significant proportion affected; the exact percentage to initiate metaphylaxis needs to be determined by the veterinary surgeon.
Management of disease
Animals severely affected by NFE bilaterally are often blind and as a result are easily panicked and wild in nature. It is important to ensure animals with reduced vision have easy access to food, remain in familiar surroundings, are kept with other animals and ideally where possible kept out of direct sunlight.
Prevention
Prevention is key for the control and reduction of NFE, and it is important to note that younger animals are more prone to disease (Allan and Van Winden, 2020). Fly control, decreasing stocking density, improved ventilation and adequate feed and water space will help to minimise disease on-farm. For outdoor grazing animals, avoiding high-risk pastures where woodland is adjacent is useful. With regards to fly control, there are many options available including topical application of pyrethroids, fly tags, environmental control (surface spraying, parasitic larvae and reduction of fly breeding grounds) and above all ensuring animals are well grown, on a good plan of nutrition and have no underlying disease (eg BVD).
References
Allan, J. and Van Winden, S. 2020
Randomised control trial comparing cypermethrin-based preparations in the prevention of infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis in cattle. Animals, 10, 184
Belknap, E. B. 2015
Corneal emergencies. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 30, 74-80
Funk, L. D., Reecy, J. M., Wang, C., Tait, R. G. and O’Connor, A. M. 2014
Associations between infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis at weaning and ultrasongraphically measured body composition traits in yearling cattle. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244, 100-106
Hudson, C., Whay, H. and Huxley, J. 2008
Recognition and management of pain in cattle. In Practice, 30, 126-134
Lane, V. M., George, L. W. and Cleaver, D. M. 2006
Efficacy of tulathromycin for treatment of cattle with acute ocular Moraxella bovis infections. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 229, 557-561
Mcconnel, C. S., Shum, L. and House, J. K. 2007
Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis antimicrobial therapy. Australian Veterinary Journal, 85, 65-69